论交通事故责任认定的行政可诉性
刘善书
一
在我国,法院每年受理的全部案件中,因交通事故引起的人身伤害和财产损害赔偿案件占有相当大的比例,而交通事故责任认定则在这类案件中起着至关重要的证据作用。所谓交通事故责任认定,是指公安机关依据国务院《道路交通事故处理办法》,在查明交通事故原因后,根据当事人的违章行为与交通事故之间的因果关系以及违章行为在交通事故中的作用,确认当事人责任大小的单方行为。
长期以来,对公安机关作出的交通事故责任认定是否可以纳入行政诉讼案件的受案范围,在法学界一直存在着广泛的争议。司法实践中交通事故责任认定则被作为一种不可诉行政行为来处理的,这种做法在法律规范方面的依据是1992年12月1日公安部和最高人民法院联合下发的《关于处理交通事故案件有关问题的通知》(即法发(1992)39号文),该通知第四条规定:“当事人仅就公安机关作出的道路交通事故责任认定和伤残评定不服,向人民法院提起行政诉讼或者民事诉讼的,人民法院不予受理。当事人对作出的行政处罚不服提起行政诉讼或者就损害赔偿问题提起民事诉讼的,以及人民法院审理交通肇事刑事案件时,人民法院经审查认为公安机关所作出的责任认定、伤残评定确属不妥,则不予采信,以人民法院审理认定的案件事实作为定案的依据。”
随着司法实践的深入和2000年3月10日起施行的《最高人民法院关于执行〈中华人民共和国行政诉讼法〉若干问题的解释》,即法释(2000)8号文的出台,交通事故责任认定不可诉性越来越受到权益保护公平原则和法制统一原则的诘责。第一,交通事故责任认定不具有行政可诉性,容易造成当事人权益保护的不平等。在交通事故案件中,对于遭受重大损失且被认定为负次要责任的一方当事人,如果在公安机关行政调解不成或者在另一方当事人拒不履行行政调解协议时,则可以向人民法院提起民事诉讼,要求判令对方当事人承担民事赔偿责任,从而使自己的合法权益得以实现。但对于损失较小且被认定为负主要责任的一方当事人来说,如果对行政机关责任认定不服,既不能向人民法院提起民事诉讼(因为找不到适格的民事被告),按照(1992)39号文又无法提起行政诉讼,从而告状无门;即使其能够在作为被告的民事诉讼中可以对交通事故责任认定提出异议,由于其自身身份的限制,推翻行政机关的行政行为无异于蚂蚁搬山,客观上造成双方当事人权益司法保护的不平等。第二,交通事故责任认定不具有行政可诉性,容易造成对公安机关司法监督不力,产生特权。按照行政诉讼法规定,对具体行政行为的合法性进行审查,是行政审判的职能,通过民事审判来审查具体行政行为是否合法,不仅影响人民法院充分地行使审判职权,而且也不利于保证公安机关依法行政。在民事诉讼中如果不予认定交通事故责任认定书,就会削弱公安机关行政裁决的权威性,使交通事故责任认定变得可有可无,无足轻重;如果不加审查予以采信,则会使公安机关对交通事故责任认定变成一种特权,失去司法监督,增加随意性,纵容违法行政。第三,交通事故责任认定不具有行政可诉性,与现行法律和司法解释相悖。《中华人民共和国行政诉讼法》虽然没有明确列举出交通事故责任认定为可诉的具体行政行为,但在第11条(8)项概括式规定“认为行政机关侵犯其他人身权、财产权的”可以向人民法院提起行政诉讼。交通事故责任认定表面上看只是公安机关对事故的形式处理,其实质却直接涉及当事人因此而应承担的赔偿责任,即财产权利。最高人民法院法释(2000)8号文进一步宽泛地规定行政诉讼的受案范围:“公民、法人或者其他组织对具有国家行政职权的机关和组织及其工作人员的行政行为不服,依法提起诉讼的,属于人民法院行政诉讼的受案范围”。公安机关交通事故责任认定显然包含在这一类行政行为中。
我们再从有关法律的排斥性条款看,根据《中华人民共和国行政诉讼法》和最高人民法院(2000)8号文规定,下列行为不属行政诉讼的受案范围:一是行政诉讼法第12条规定的行为,即国家行为,制定行政法规规章和发布具有普遍约束力的决定命令的行为,行政机关对行政机关工作人员的奖惩任免行为,法律规定由行政机关作出最终裁决的行为;二是公安、国家安全等机关依照刑事诉讼法的明确授权实施的行为;三是调解行为以及法律规定的仲裁行为;四是不具有强制力的行政指导行为;五是驳回当事人对行政行为提起申诉的重复处理行为;六是对公民、法人或者其他组织权利义务不产生实际影响的行为。交通事故责任认定与上述不可诉行政行为相对照,除与“法律规定由行政机关最终裁决的行为”相近外,没有其他相对应的条款。而这里的“法律”是广义的法律规范,还是狭义的最高权力机关制定的法律,是否包括司法解释呢?对此,法释(2000)8号文第5条进一步说明:“行政诉讼法第十二条第四项规定的‘法律规定由行政机关最终裁决的具体行政行为’中的‘法律’,是指全国人民代表大会常务委员会制定通过的规范性文件”。目前在我国最高权力机关制定的法律中,没有任何一条规定交通事故责任认定是公安机关的最终裁决行为。最高人民法院、公安部联合下发的法发(1992)39号文显然不属于最高权力机关制定的规范性文件,公安机关对交通事故作出的责任认定自然也不属于行政机关的最终裁决行为。如果依据此文拒不受理对交通事故责任认定提起的行政诉讼,将会造成法律规范冲突。
二
交通事故责任认定是否具有可诉性,应当从三个方面考虑:第一,交通事故责任认定是否属于行政行为;第二,交通事故责任认定与其他一般的技术性鉴定有何不同;第三,交通事故责任认定是否属于公安机关最终裁决的行政行为,或者说是否属于《中华人民共和国行政诉讼法》和最高人民法院法释(2000)8号文规定的受案范围。
首先,交通事故责任认定是一种具体行政行为。具体行政行为是指国家行政机关和行政机关工作人员、法律法规授权的组织、行政机关委托的组织或者个人在行政管理活动中行使行政职权,针对特定的公民、法人或者其他组织,就特定的具体事项,作出的有关该公民、法人或其他组织权利义务的单方行为。交通事故责任认定完全符合具体行政行为的基本特征:第一,交通事故责任认定实施的主体是公安机关;第二,交通事故责任认定是公安机关根据国务院《道路交通事故处理办法》的授权而实施的一种职权行为;第三,交通事故责任认定是公安机关针对特定的交通事故而单方面作出的具有法律效力的行为,它代表着国家行政机关独立的管理意志,不以行政管理相对人的意志为转移。当事人是否提出处理申请或者在处理活动中是否同意,都不影响公安机关对交通事故作出责任认定。这就决定了交通事故责任认定既不同于行政调解,也不同于法律规定的行政仲裁行为;第四,交通事故责任认定一经作出,即对特定的平等的民事主体之间的权利义务关系产生实质性影响。因此,我们完全有理由说,交通事故责任认定是公安机关依照有关法律授权,在具体的交通事故处理活动中,针对特定的当事人之间的责任大小进行裁决的具体行政行为。
其次,交通事故责任认定不同于其他的一般技术性鉴定。有人认为,交通事故责任认定与一般技术性鉴定(如法医鉴定)是一样的,一般技术性鉴定不可诉,同样交通事故责任认定也不能诉。其实,只要稍一比较就不难发现,二者是完全不同的。主要表现在以下几个方面:第一,交通事故责任认定是公安机关依职权作出的行为,其主体是特定的国家行政机关;而一般技术性鉴定不一定是行政主体的职权行为,其主体是不特定的,它可能是国家行政机关,也可能是司法机关或者其他事业性单位。第二,交通事故责任认定是公安机关的单方行为,体现的是行政意志;而一般技术性鉴定则由当事人提出申请,鉴定人一般不主动行使,是双方行为。第三,交通事故责任认定在公安机关内部只经过最初作出认定和行政复议程序;而一般技术性鉴定则可以在多部门对同一事项进行多次鉴定。第四,交通事故责任认定是针对特定的当事人作出的,涉及到平等主体间的权利义务;而一般技术性鉴定并不必然涉及双方当事人的利益,不对当事人间的权利义务关系进行责任划分。如对某人进行评残,只要有该人提出申请即可,其目的可能是其自残需要领救济金,也可能是因他人致残需要索赔。如系后者,当对方当事人提出异议时,可能要在多个部门进行多次鉴定,且任何一次鉴定都不是行政行为,其内容亦不涉及当事人间的责任大小以及因此而引起的权利义务。第五,在诉讼中二者的证据作用也是不同的,交通事故责任认定没有可替代性,如其不能作为证据使用,人民法院或者当事人都不可能再找其他公安机关重新进行责任认定,即对同一事故不可能有两份以上的责任认定书;而一般性技术鉴定在同一诉讼中有可能存在多份,且当事人或者人民法院可以根据案情需要通过其他途径进行重新鉴定。
最后,交通事故责任认定具有可诉性,是一种可诉的具体行政行为。如前所述,交通事故责任认定不是最高权力机关制定的法律中由公安机关最终裁决的行政行为,不属于行政诉讼法规定的不可诉行政行为,公安机关也无权自身立法或者通过与司法机关联合下文擅自决定哪种行政行为可以不接受司法监督,最高权力机关制定的法律以外的任何“最终裁决”都是行政系统内的最终裁决,并不能因此而剥夺当事人提起行政诉讼的权利。应该说,除了最高人民法院(2000)8号文件规定的不可诉行政行为以外,所有的行政行为都属于人民法院行政诉讼的受案范围。由此可见,当事人对交通事故责任认定不服的可以向人民法院起诉,人民法院也应当予以受理。
综合以上情况分析,尽快明令取消法发(1992)39号文,将交通事故责任认定纳入行政诉讼受案范围,已成为有关部门的当务之急。这样做不仅有利于社会主义法律制度的统一,维护法制权威与尊严,推动社会主义法治建设进程,而且有利于理顺人民法院内部民事审判和行政审判的关系,提高审判效率,有利于进一步加强对公安机关交通事故责任认定的司法监督,保证其严格依法行政,同时也有利于公平地维护各方当事人的合法权益。
(作者单位:山东省济宁市中级人民法院)
中华人民共和国城镇国有土地使用权出让和转让暂行条例(附英文)
国务院
中华人民共和国城镇国有土地使用权出让和转让暂行条例(附英文)
1990年5月19日,国务院
第一章 总则
第一条 为了改革城镇国有土地使用制度,合理开发、利用、经营土地,加强土地管理,促进城市建设和经济发展,制定本条例。
第二条 国家按照所有权与使用权分离的原则,实行城镇国有土地使用权出让、转让制度,但地下资源、埋藏物和市政公用设施除外。
前款所称城镇国有土地是指市、县城、建制镇、工矿区范围内属于全民所有的土地(以下简称土地)。
第三条 中华人民共和国境内外的公司、企业、其他组织和个人,除法律另有规定者外,均可依照本条例的规定取得土地使用权,进行土地开发、利用、经营。
第四条 依照本条例的规定取得土地使用权的土地使用者,其使用权在使用年限内可以转让、出租、抵押或者用于其他经济活动。合法权益受国家法律保护。
第五条 土地使用者开发、利用、经营土地的活动,应当遵守国家法律、法规的规定,并不得损害社会公共利益。
第六条 县级以上人民政府土地管理部门依法对土地使用权的出让、转让、出租、抵押、终止进行监督检查。
第七条 土地使用权出让、转让、出租、抵押、终止及有关的地上建筑物、其他附着物的登记,由政府土地管理部门、房产管理部门依照法律和国务院的有关规定办理。
登记文件可以公开查阅。
第二章 土地使用权出让
第八条 土地使用权出让是指国家以土地所有者的身份将土地使用权在一定年限内让与土地使用者,并由土地使用者向国家支付土地使用权出让金的行为。
土地使用权出让应当签订出让合同。
第九条 土地使用权的出让,由市、县人民政府负责,有计划、有步骤地进行。
第十条 土地使用权出让的地块、用途、年限和其他条件,由市、县人民政府土地管理部门会同城市规划和建设管理部门、房产管理部门共同拟定方案,按照国务院规定的批准权限报经批准后,由土地管理部门实施。
第十一条 土地使用权出让合同应当按照平等、自愿、有偿的原则,由市、县人民政府土地管理部门(以下简称出让方)与土地使用者签订。
第十二条 土地使用权出让最高年限按下列用途确定:
(一)居住用地七十年;
(二)工业用地五十年;
(三)教育、科技、文化、卫生、体育用地五十年;
(四)商业、旅游、娱乐用地四十年;
(五)综合或者其他用地五十年。
第十三条 土地使用权出让可以采取下列方式:
(一)协议;
(二)招标;
(三)拍卖。
依照前款规定方式出让土地使用权的具体程序和步骤,由省、自治区、直辖市人民政府规定。
第十四条 土地使用者应当在签订土地使用权出让合同后六十日内,支付全部土地使用权出让金。逾期未全部支付的,出让方有权解除合同,并可请求违约赔偿。
第十五条 出让方应当按照合同规定,提供出让的土地使用权。未按合同规定提供土地使用权的,土地使用者有权解除合同,并可请求违约赔偿。
第十六条 土地使用者在支付全部土地使用权出让金后,应当依照规定办理登记,领取土地使用证,取得土地使用权。
第十七条 土地使用者应当按照土地使用权出让合同的规定和城市规划的要求,开发、利用、经营土地。
未按合同规定的期限和条件开发、利用土地的,市、县人民政府土地管理部门应当予以纠正,并根据情节可以给予警告、罚款直至无偿收回土地使用权的处罚。
第十八条 土地使用者需要改变土地使用权出让合同规定的土地用途的,应当征得出让方同意并经土地管理部门和城市规划部门批准,依照本章的有关规定重新签订土地使用权出让合同,调整土地使用权出让金,并办理登记。
第三章 土地使用权转让
第十九条 土地使用权转让是指土地使用者将土地使用权再转移的行为,包括出售、交换和赠与。
未按土地使用权出让合同规定的期限和条件投资开发、利用土地的,土地使用权不得转让。
第二十条 土地使用权转让应当签订转让合同。
第二十一条 土地使用权转让时,土地使用权出让合同和登记文件中所载明的权利、义务随之转移。
第二十二条 土地使用者通过转让方式取得的土地使用权,其使用年限为土地使用权出让合同规定的使用年限减去原土地使用者已使用年限后的剩余年限。
第二十三条 土地使用权转让时,其地上建筑物、其他附着物所有权随之转让。
第二十四条 地上建筑物、其他附着物的所有人或者共有人,享有该建筑物、附着物使用范围内的土地使用权。
土地使用者转让地上建筑物、其他附着物所有权时,其使用范围内的土地使用权随之转让,但地上建筑物、其他附着物作为动产转让的除外。
第二十五条 土地使用权和地上建筑物、其他附着物所有权转让,应当依照规定办理过户登记。
土地使用权和地上建筑物、其他附着物所有权分割转让的,应当经市、县人民政府土地管理部门和房产管理部门批准,并依照规定办理过户登记。
第二十六条 土地使用权转让价格明显低于市场价格的,市、县人民政府有优先购买权。
土地使用权转让的市场价格不合理上涨时,市、县人民政府可以采取必要的措施。
第二十七条 土地使用权转让后,需要改变土地使用权出让合同规定的土地用途的,依照本条例第十八条的规定办理。
第四章 土地使用权出租
第二十八条 土地使用权出租是指土地使用者作为出租人将土地使用权随同地上建筑物、其他附着物租赁给承租人使用,由承租人向出租人支付租金的行为。
未按土地使用权出让合同规定的期限和条件投资开发、利用土地的,土地使用权不得出租。
第二十九条 土地使用权出租,出租人与承租人应当签订租赁合同。
租赁合同不得违背国家法律、法规和土地使用权出让合同的规定。
第三十条 土地使用权出租后,出租人必须继续履行土地使用权出让合同。
第三十一条 土地使用权和地上建筑物、其他附着物出租,出租人应当依照规定办理登记。
第五章 土地使用权抵押
第三十二条 土地使用权可以抵押。
第三十三条 土地使用权抵押时,其地上建筑物、其他附着物随之抵押。
地上建筑物、其他附着物抵押时,其使用范围内的土地使用权随之抵押。
第三十四条 土地使用权抵押,抵押人与抵押权人应当签订抵押合同。
抵押合同不得违背国家法律、法规和土地使用权出让合同的规定。
第三十五条 土地使用权和地上建筑物、其他附着物抵押,应当按照规定办理抵押登记。
第三十六条 抵押人到期未能履行债务或者在抵押合同期间宣告解散、破产的,抵押权人有权依照国家法律、法规和抵押合同的规定处分抵押财产。
因处分抵押财产而取得土地使用权和地上建筑物、其他附着物所有权的,应当依照规定办理过户登记。
第三十七条 处分抵押财产所得,抵押权人有优先受偿权。
第三十八条 抵押权因债务清偿或者其他原因而消灭的,应当依照规定办理注销抵押登记。
第六章 土地使用权终止
第三十九条 土地使用权因土地使用权出让合同规定的使用年限届满、提前收回及土地灭失等原因而终止。
第四十条 土地使用权期满,土地使用权及其地上建筑物、其他附着物所有权由国家无偿取得。土地使用者应当交还土地使用证,并依照规定办理注销登记。
第四十一条 土地使用权期满,土地使用者可以申请续期。需要续期的,应当依照本条例第二章的规定重新签订合同,支付土地使用权出让金,并办理登记。
第四十二条 国家对土地使用者依法取得的土地使用权不提前收回。在特殊情况下,根据社会公共利益的需要,国家可以依照法律程序提前收回,并根据土地使用者已使用的年限和开发、利用土地的实际情况给予相应的补偿。
第七章 划拨土地使用权
第四十三条 划拨土地使用权是指土地使用者通过各种方式依法无偿取得的土地使用权。
前款土地使用者应当依照《中华人民共和国城镇土地使用税暂行条例》的规定缴纳土地使用税。
第四十四条 划拨土地使用权,除本条例第四十五条规定的情况外,不得转让、出租、抵押。
第四十五条 符合下列条件的,经市、县人民政府土地管理部门和房产管理部门批准,其划拨土地使用权和地上建筑物,其他附着物所有权可以转让、出租、抵押:
(一)土地使用者为公司、企业、其他经济组织和个人;
(二)领有国有土地使用证;
(三)具有地上建筑物、其他附着物合法的产权证明;
(四)依照本条例第二章的规定签订土地使用权出让合同,向当地市、县人民政府补交土地使用权出让金或者以转让、出租、抵押所获收益抵交土地使用权出让金。
转让、出租、抵押前款划拨土地使用权的,分别依照本条例第三章、第四章和第五章的规定办理。
第四十六条 对未经批准擅自转让、出租、抵押划拨土地使用权的单位和个人,市、县人民政府土地管理部门应当没收其非法收入,并根据情节处以罚款。
第四十七条 无偿取得划拨土地使用权的土地使用者,因迁移、解散、撤销、破产或者其他原因而停止使用土地的,市、县人民政府应当无偿收回其划拨土地使用权,并可依照本条例的规定予以出让。
对划拨土地使用权,市、县人民政府根据城市建设发展需要和城市规划的要求,可以无偿收回,并可依照本条例的规定予以出让。
无偿收回划拨土地使用权时,对其地上建筑物、其他附着物,市、县人民政府应当根据实际情况给予适当补偿。
第八章 附则
第四十八条 依照本条例的规定取得土地使用权的个人,其土地使用权可以继承。
第四十九条 土地使用者应当依照国家税收法规的规定纳税。
第五十条 依照本条例收取的土地使用权出让金列入财政预算,作为专项基金管理,主要用于城市建设和土地开发。具体使用管理办法,由财政部另行制定。
第五十一条 各省、自治区、直辖市人民政府应当根据本条例的规定和当地的实际情况选择部分条件比较成熟的城镇先行试点。
第五十二条 外商投资从事开发经营成片土地的,其土地使用权的管理依照国务院的有关规定执行。
第五十三条 本条例由国家土地管理局负责解释;实施办法由省、自治区、直辖市人民政府制定。
第五十四条 本条例自发布之日起施行。
INTERIM REGULATIONS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA CONCERNINGTHE ASSIGNMENT AND TRANSFER OF THE RIGHT TO THE USE OF THE STATE-OWNEDLAND IN THE URBAN AREAS
Important Notice: (注意事项)
英文本源自中华人民共和国务院法制局编译, 中国法制出版社出版的《中华人民
共和国涉外法规汇编》(1991年7月版).
当发生歧意时, 应以法律法规颁布单位发布的中文原文为准.
This English document is coming from the "LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THE
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA GOVERNING FOREIGN-RELATED MATTERS" (1991.7)
which is compiled by the Brueau of Legislative Affairs of the State
Council of the People's Republic of China, and is published by the China
Legal System Publishing House.
In case of discrepancy, the original version in Chinese shall prevail.
Whole Document (法规全文)
INTERIM REGULATIONS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA CONCERNING
THE ASSIGNMENT AND TRANSFER OF THE RIGHT TO THE USE OF THE STATE-OWNED
LAND IN THE URBAN AREAS
(Promulgated by Decree No. 55 of the State Council of the People's
Republic of China on May 19, 1990 and effective as of the date of
promulgation)
Chapter I General Provisions
Article 1
These Regulations are formulated in order to reform the system of using
the State-owned land in the urban areas, rationally develop, utilize and
manage the land, strengthen land administration and promote urban
construction and economic development.
Article 2
The State, in accordance with the principle of the ownership being
separated from the right to the use of the land, implements the system
whereby the right to the use of the State-owned land in the urban areas
may be assigned and transferred, with the exclusion of the underground
resources, the objects buried underground, and the public works. The term
"State-owned land in the urban areas" as used in the preceding paragraph
refers to the land owned by the whole people (hereafter referred to as
"the land") within the limits of cities, county sites, administrative
towns and industrial and mining areas.
Article 3
Any company, enterprise, other organization and individual within or
outside the People's Republic of China may, unless otherwise provided by
law, obtain the right to the use of the land and engage in land
development, utilization and management in accordance with the provisions
of these Regulations.
Article 4
Users of the land who have obtained the right to the use of the land in
accordance with these Regulations may, within the term of land use,
transfer, lease, or mortgage the right to the use of the land or use it
for other economic activities, and their lawful rights and interests shall
be protected by the laws of the State.
Article 5
Users of the land shall, in their activities to develop, utilize and
manage the land, abide by the laws and regulations of the state and may
not jeopardize the interests of the society and the public.
Article 6
The land administrative departments under the people's governments at or
above the county level shall conduct supervision and inspection, according
to law, over the assignment, transfer, lease, mortgage and termination of
the right to the use of the land.
Article 7
The registration of the assignment, transfer, lease, mortgage and
termination of the right to the use of the land and the registration of
the above-ground buildings and other attached objects shall be handled by
the land administration department and housing administration departments
of the government in accordance with the law and the pertinent regulations
of the State Council.
The registration documents shall be made available for public reference.
Chapter II The Assignment of the Right to the Use of the Land
Article 8
The assignment of the right to the use of the land refers to the act of
the State as the owner of the land who, within the term of a certain
number of years, assigns the right to the use of the land to land users,
who shall in turn pay fees for the assignment thereof to the State.
An assignment contract shall be signed for assigning the right to the use
of the land.
Article 9
People's governments at the municipal and county levels shall be in charge
of assigning the right to the use of land, which shall be effected in a
planned, step-by-step way.
Article 10
The land administration departments under the people's governments at the
municipal and county levels shall, in conjunction with the administrative
departments for urban planning and construction and the housing
administration departments, draw up a plan concerning the size and
location, the purposes, the term, and other conditions with respect to the
assigning of the right to the use of the land. The plan shall be submitted
for approval in accordance with the limits of authority for approval as
stipulated by the State Council and shall then be implemented by the land
administration departments.
Article 11
The contract for assigning the right to the use of the land shall be
signed by and between the land administration departments under the
people's governments at the municipal and county levels (hereinafter
referred to as "the assigning party") and the land users in accordance
with the principle of equality, voluntariness and compensation for use.
Article 12
The maximum term with respect to the assigned right to the use of the land
shall be determined respectively in the light of the purposes listed
below:
(1) 70 years for residential purposes;
(2) 50 years for industrial purposes;
(3) 50 years for the purposes of education, science, culture, public
health and physical education;
(4) 40 years for commercial, tourist and recreational purposes; and
(5) 50 years for comprehensive utilization or other purposes.
Article 13
The assignment of the right to the use of the land may be carried out by
the following means:
(1) by reaching an agreement through consultations;
(2) by invitation to bid; or
(3) by auction.
The specific procedures and steps for assigning the right to the use of
the land by the means stipulated in the preceding paragraphs shall be
formulated by the people's government of the relevant province, automonous
region, or municipality directly under the Central Government.
Article 14
The land user shall, within 60 days of the signing of the contract for the
assignment of the right to the use of the land, pay the total amount of
the assignment fee thereof, failing which, the assigning party shall have
the right to terminate the contract and may claim compensation for breach
of contract.
Article 15
The assigning party shall, in compliance with the stipulations of the
contract, provide the right to the use of the land thus assigned, failing
which, the land user shall have the right to terminate the contract and
may claim compensation for breach of contract.
Article 16
After paying the total amount of the fee for the assignment of the right
to the use of the land, the land user shall, in accordance with the
relevant provisions, go through the registration thereof, obtain the
certificate for land use and accordingly the right to the use of the land.
Article 17
The land user shall, in conformity with the stipulations of the contract
for the assignment of the right to the use of land and the requirements of
city planning, develop, utilize and manage the land.
Should any land user fail to develop and utilize the land in accordance
with the period of time specified in the contract and the conditions
therein, the land administration departments under the people's
governments at the municipal and county levels shall make corrections and,
in light of the seriousness of the case, give such penalties as a warning,
a fine or, in an extreme case, withdrawing the right to the use of the
land without compensation.
Article 18
If the land user needs to alter the purposes of land use as stipulated in
the contract for assigning the right to the use of land, he shall obtain
the consent of the assigning party and the approval of the land
administration department and the urban planning department and shall, in
accordance with the relevant provisions in this Chapter, sign a new
contract for assigning the right to the use of the land, readjust the
amount of the assignment fee thereof, and undertake registration anew.
Chapter III The Transfer of the Right to the Use of the Land
Article 19
The transfer of the right to the use of the land refers to the land user's
act of re-assigning the right to the use of the land, including the sale,
exchange, and donation thereof. If the land has not been developed and
utilized in accordance with the period of time specified in the contract
and the conditions therein, the right to the use thereof may not be
transferred.
Article 20
A transfer contract shall be signed for the transfer of the right to the
use of the land.
Article 21
With the transfer of the right to the use of the land, the rights and
obligations specified in the contract for assigning the right to the use
of the land and in the registration documents shall be transferred
accordingly.
Article 22
The land user who has acquired the right to the use of the land by means
of the transfer thereof shall have a term of use which is the remainder of
the term specified in the contract for assigning the right to the use of
the land minus the number of the years in which the original land user has
used the land.
Article 23
With the transfer of the right to the use of the land, the ownership of
the above-ground buildings and other attached objects shall be transferred
accordingly.
Article 24
The owners or joint owners of the above-ground buildings and other
attached objects shall have the right to the use of the land within the
limits of use of the said buildings and objects.
With the transfer of the ownership of the above-ground buildings and other
attached objects by the land users, the right to the use of the land
within the limits of use of the said buildings and objects shall be
transferred accordingly, with the exception of the movables.
Article 25
With respect to the transfer of the right to the use of the land and of
the ownership of the above-ground buildings and other attached objects,
registration for the transfer shall be undertaken in accordance with the
relevant provisions.
Divided transfer of the right to the use of the land and of the ownership
of the above-ground buildings and other attached objects shall be subject
to the approval of the land administration department and the housing
administration departments under the people's governments at the municipal
and county levels, and registration for the divided transfer shall be
undertaken in accordance with the relevant provisions.
Article 26
When the transfer of the right to the use of the land is priced at a level
obviously lower than the prevailing market price, the people's governments
at the municipal and county levels shall have the priority of the purchase
thereof.
When the market price for the transfer of the right to the use of the land
rises to an unreasonable extent, the people's governments at the municipal
and county levels may take necessary measures to cope with it.
Article 27
If, after the transfer of the right to the use of the land, necessity
arises for altering the purposes of land use as stipulated in the contract
for assigning the right to the use of the land, it shall be handled in
accordance with the provisions in Article 18 of these Regulations.
Chapter IV The Lease of the Right to the Use of the Land
Article 28
The lease of the right to the use of the land refers to the act of the
land user as the lessor to lease the right to the use of the land together
with the above-ground buildings and other attached objects to the lessee
for use who shall in turn pay lease rentals to the lessor. If the land has
not been developed and utilized in accordance with the period of time
specified in the contract and the conditions therein, the right to the use
thereof may not be leased.
Article 29
A lease contract shall be signed for leasing the right to the use of the
land by and between the lessor and the lessee.
The lease contract shall not run counter to the laws and regulations of
the State or the stipulations of the contract for assigning the right to
the use of the land.
Article 30
After leasing the right to the use of the land, the lessee must continue
to perform the contract for assigning the right to the use of the land.
Article 31
With respect to the lease of the right to the use of the land together
with the above-ground buildings and other attached objects, the lessee
shall undertake registration in accordance with the relevant provisions.
Chapter V The Mortgage of the Right to the Use of the Land
Article 32
The right to the use of the land may be mortgaged.
Article 33
With the mortgage of the right to the use of the land, the above-ground
buildings and other attached objects thereon shall be mortgaged
accordingly.
With the above-ground buildings and other attached objects, the right to
the use of the land within the limits of use of the said buildings and
objects shall be mortgaged accordingly.
Article 34
A mortgage contract shall be signed for mortgaging the right to the use of
the land by and between the mortgagor and the mortgagee.
The mortgage contract shall not run counter to the laws and regulations of
the State or the stipulations of the contract for assigning the right to
the use of the land.
Article 35
With respect to the mortgage of the right to the use of the land together
with the above-ground buildings and other attached objects, registration
for the mortgage shall be undertaken in accordance with the relevant
provisions.
Article 36
If the mortgagor fails to fulfil liabilities within the prescribed period
of time or declares dissolution or bankruptcy within the term of the
mortgage contract, the mortgagee shall have the right to dispose of the
mortgaged property in accordance with the laws and regulations of the
State and the stipulations of the mortgage contract. With respect to the
right to the use of the land and the ownership of the above-ground
buildings and other attached objects acquired as a result of the disposal
of the mortgaged property, transfer registration shall be undertaken in
accordance with the relevant provisions.
Article 37
The mortgagee shall have the priority of compensation with respect to the
receipts resulting from the disposal of the mortgaged property.
Article 38
If the mortgage is eliminated as a result of the liquidation of
liabilities or for other reasons, procedures shall be undertaken to
nullify the mortgage registration.
Chapter VI The Termination of the Right to the Use of the Land
Article 39
The right to the use of the land terminate for such reasons as the
expiration of the term of use as stipulated in the contract for assigning
the right to the use of the land, the withdrawal of the right before the
expiration, or the loss of the land.
Article 40
Upon expiration of the term of use, the right to the use of the land and
the ownership of the above-ground buildings and other attached objects
thereon shall be acquired by the State without compensation. The land user
shall surrender the certificate for land use and undertake procedures to
nullify the registration.
Article 41
Upon expiration of the term of use, the land user may apply for its
renewal. Where such a renewal is necessary, a new contract shall be signed
in accordance with the provisions in Chapter II of these Regulations and
the land user shall pay the fee for the assignment of the right to the use
of the land and undertake registration.
Article 42
The State shall not withdraw before the expiration of the term of use the
right to the use of the land which the land user acquired in accordance
with the law. Under special circumstances, the State may, based on the
requirements of social public interests, withdraw the right before the
expiration of the term of use in line with the relevant legal procedures
and shall, based on the number of years in which the land user has used
the land and actual state of affairs with respect to the development and
utilization of the land, offer corresponding compensation.
Chapter VII The Allocated Right to the Use of the Land
Article 43
The allocated right to the use of the land refers to the right to the use
of the land which the land user acquires in accordance with the law, by
various means, and without compensation.
The land user referred to in the preceding paragraph shall pay tax for the
use of the land in accordance with the provisions of the Interim
Regulations of the People's Republic of China Concerning the Tax for the
Use of the Land in the Urban Areas.
Article 44
The allocated right to the use of the land may not be transferred, leased,
or mortgaged, with the exception of cases as specified in Article 45 of
these Regulations.
Article 45
On condition that the following requirements are satisfied, the allocated
right to the use of the land and the ownership of the above-ground
buildings and other attached objects may, subject to the approval of the
land administration departments and the housing administration departments
under the people's governments at the municipal and county levels, be
transferred, leased or mortgaged:
(1) the land users are companies, enterprises, or other economic
organizations, or individuals;
(2) a certificate for the use of state-owned land has been obtained;
(3) possessing legitimate certificates of property rights to the above-
ground buildings and other attached objects; and
(4) a contract for assigning the right to the use of land is signed in
accordance with the provisions in Chapter II of these Regulations and the
land user makes up for the payment of the assignment fee to the local
municipal or county people's government or uses the profits resulting from
the transfer, lease or mortgage to pay the assignment fee.
The transfer, lease or mortgage of the allocated right to the use of the
land referred to in the preceding paragraphs shall be handled respectively
in accordance with the provisions in Chapters III, IV and V of these
Regulations.
Article 46
Any units or individuals that transfers, lease or mortgage the allocated
right to the use of the land without authorization shall have their
illegal incomes thus secured confiscated by the land administration
departments under the people's governments at the municipal and county
levels and shall be fined in accordance with the seriousness of the case.
Article 47
If the land user who has acquired the allocated right to the use of the
land without compensation stops the use thereof as a result of moving to
another site, dissolution, disbandment, or bankruptcy or for other
reasons, the municipal or county people's government shall withdraw the
allocated right to the use of the land without compensation and may assign
it in accordance with the relevant provisions of these Regulations.
The municipal or county people's government may, based on the needs of
urban construction and development and the requirements of urban planning,
withdraw the allocated right to the use of the land without compensation
and may assign it in accordance with the relevant provisions of these
Regulations.
When the allocated right to the use of the land is withdrawn without
compensation, the municipal or county people's government shall, in the
light of the actual state of affairs, give due compensation for the above-
ground buildings and other attached objects thereon.
Chapter VIII Supplementary Provisions
Article 48
The right to the use of the land may be inherited if it is acquired by
individuals in accordance with the provisions of these Regulations.
Article 49
The land user shall pay tax in accordance with the provisions of the tax
laws and regulations of the State.
Article 50
Fees collected by assigning the right to the use of the land in accordance
with these Regulations shall be included in the fiscal budget and managed
as a special fund, which shall be used mainly for urban construction and
land development. The specific measures for the use and management of the
fund shall be separately prescribed by the Ministry of Finance.
Article 51
The people's governments of various provinces, autonomous regions and
municipalities directly under the Central Government shall, in accordance
with the provisions of these Regulations and with the actual state of
affairs in their respective localities, select as their pilot testing
grounds some of the cities or towns where conditions are relatively ripe.
Article 52
With respect to foreign investors engaging in developing and managing
tracts of land, the administration of the right to the use of the land
shall be effected in accordance with the relevant provisions of the State
Council.
Article 53
The State Administration for Land Uses shall be responsible for the
interpretation of these Regulations; the measures for the implementation
thereof shall be formulated by the people's government of the provinces,
autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central
Government.
Article 54
These Regulations shall go into effect as of the date of promulgation.